Mole of Molecules

Mole of Molecules:
The mass of a mole of molecules of a substance is the molecular mass expressed in grams.  For
example, an oxygen molecule (O2) has a molecular mass equivalent to 32.0 grams because each oxygen atom has a molecular mass of 16.0 grams.

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The Mole

The Mole:
A single atom or a few atoms are rarely encountered.  Instead, larger, macroscopic quantities
are used to quantify or measure collections of atoms or molecules, such as a glass of water, a
gallon of alcohol, or two aspirin.  Chemists have introduced a large unit of matter, the mole, to
deal with macroscopic samples of matter. 
One mole represents a definite number of objects, substances, or particles. For example, a mole
of atoms, a mole of ions, a mole of molecules. A mole is defined as the quantity of a pure substance that contains 6.022 x 10^23 units of that substance.  In other words, a mole is Avogadro's number of anything.

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Molecules(Molecules of an Element and Molecules of a Compound)

Molecules
Molecules are groups or clusters of atoms held together by means of chemical bonding.  There
are two types of molecule; molecules of an element and molecules of a compound.

1. Molecules of an Element                                                                                                                  In certain cases, two single atoms of an element can be attracted to one another by a bond to form a molecule.  Examples of this are hydrogen, oxygen, and bromine.
2. Molecules of a Compound                                                                                                        Two atoms of different elements held together by a bond form a compound.  The molecule is the primary particle of a chemical compound. Some examples of this type of molecule include hydrogen chloride , water , methane andammonia .

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Atomic Mass Number

The sum of the total number of protons, Z, and the total number of neutrons, N, is called
the atomic mass number. The symbol is A.  Not all atoms of the same element have the
same atomic mass number, because, although the Z is the same, the N and thus the A are
different.  Atoms of the same element with different atomic mass numbers are called
isotopes.

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Atomic Number

The number of protons in the nucleus plays such an important role in identifying the
atom that it is given a special name, the atomic number. The symbol Z is often used for
atomic number. Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1 and
lawrencium has an atomic number of 103.  The atomic number is also equal to the
number of electrons

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Atom (The atom structure)

An atom is composed of a positively-charged nucleus orbited by one or more negatively-charged
particles called electrons.The neutrons are electrically neutral, and the protons are electrically
positive. Together the neutrons and protons give the nucleus its mass.The particles that orbit the nucleus are electrons. Each electron is negatively charged, and the charge of one electron is equal in magnitude (but opposite in sign) to the charge of one proton. Each electron is negatively charged, and the charge of one
electron is equal in magnitude (but opposite in sign) to the charge of one proton. 

 An atom is an extremely small electrically-neutral particle. An atom is composed of a positively-charged nucleus orbited by one or more negatively-charged
particles called electrons.
The diameter of the atom is determined by the range of the electrons in their travels around the
nucleus and is approximately 10 ^-8 cm.  The diameter of the nucleus is roughly 10,000 times smaller, approximately 10^-13 to 10^-12 cm.  Because the nucleus is composed of neutrons and
protons that are about 1835 times heavier than an electron, the nucleus contains practically all
the mass of the atom, but constitutes a very small fraction of the volume.  Although electrons
are individually very small, the space in which they orbit the nucleus constitutes the largest part
of the atomic volume.

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Characteristics of Matter

The term states of matter refers to the physical forms in which matter exists:  solid, liquid, and
gas. Solids are characterized as having both a definite shape and a definite volume.  In a solid,
the forces that keep the molecules or atoms together are strong. Therefore, a solid does not
require outside support to maintain its shape.
Liquids have definite volumes but indefinite shapes and are slightly compressible.  Liquids take
the shape of their containers.  The forces that keep a liquid's molecules or atoms together are
weaker than in the solids.
Gases are readily compressible and capable of infinite expansion. They have indefinite shape and
indefinite volume.  Of the three states, gases have the weakest forces holding their molecules or
atoms together.
The different states of matter have one thing in common; they can all be broken down into
fundamental units called atoms.

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Branches of Computer

1-Computer Sciences
2-Computer Engineering
3-Information Technology
4-Information System

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Branches Of Chemistry

Add caption

1. Organic Chemistry
2. Inorganic Chemistry
3. Physical Chemistry
4. Biochemistry
5. Analytical Chemistry
6. Nuclear Chemistry
7. Organic Chemistry
8. Inorganic Chemistry 

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Branches of physics

There are many branches and subbranches of Physics but some most popular branches and subbranches of physics are here.

1. Mechanics
2. Heat and thermodynamics
3. Nuclear Physics
4. Plasma Physics
5. Solid State Physics
6. AstroPhysics
7. GeoPhysics
8. BioPhysics
9. Atomic and molecular physics
10. Cosmology
11. Theoretical physics
12. Quantum Mechanics.

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History of Physics

Physics is a branch of science that developed out of philosophy, and was thus referred to as natural philosophy until the late 19th century - a term describing a field of study concerned with "the workings of nature". Currently, physics is traditionally defined as the study of matter, energy, and the relation between them. Physics is, in some senses, the oldest and most basic pure science; its discoveries find applications throughout the natural sciences, since matter and energy are the basic constituents of the natural world. The other sciences are generally more limited in their scope and may be considered branches that have split off from physics to become sciences in their own right. Physics today may be divided loosely into classical physics and modern physics.

Ancient Greece

The move towards a rational understanding of nature began at least since the Archaic period in Greece (650 – 480 BC) with the Pre-Socratic philosophers. The philosopher Thales (7th and 6 centuries BC), dubbed "the Father of Science" for refusing to accept various supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaimed that every event had a natural cause. Thales also made advancements in 580 BC by suggesting that water is the basic element, experimenting with magnets and attraction to rubbed amber, and formulating the first cosmologies. Anaximander, famous for his proto-evolutionary theory, disputed the ideas of Thales and proposed that rather than water, a substance called apeiron was the building block of all matter. Heraclitus (around 500 BC) proposed that the only basic law governing the universe was the principal of change and that nothing remains in the same state indefinitely. This observation made him one of the first scholars in ancient physics to address the role of time in the universe, one of the most important concepts even in the modern history of physics. The early physicist Leucippus (first half of the 5th century BC) adamantly opposed the idea of direct divine intervention in the universe, instead proposing that natural phenomena had a natural cause. Leucippus and his student, Democritus, were the first to develop the theory of atomism – the idea that everything is composed entirely of various imperishable, indivisible elements called atoms.

Muslim scientists

During the period of time known as the Dark Ages (5th – 15th century), Muslim scholars and scientists progressed science and technology while Europe was in cultural decline and poverty. The scientific research of the Islamic scientists is often overlooked due to the conflict of the Crusades and "it's possible, too, that many scholars in the Renaissance later played down or even disguised their connection to the Middle East for both political and religious reasons." The Islamic Abbasid caliphs gathered many classic works of antiquity and had them translated into Arabic within the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, Iraq. Islamic philosophers such as Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), and Averroes (Ibn Rushd) reinterpreted Greek thought in the context of their religion. Ibn Sina (980 – 1037), known by the Latin name Avicenna, was a medical researcher from Bukhara, Uzbekistan responsible for important contributions to the disciplines of physics, optics, philosophy and medicine. He is most famous for writing The Canon of Medicine, a text used to teach student doctors in Europe until the 1600s.
                                                                                                                                                 ^{[The above passage from wikipedia.org]}

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History of Chemistry

The earliest record of man's interest in chemistry was approximately 3,000 B.C, in the fertile crescent. At that time, chemistry was more an art than a science. Tablets record the first known chemists as women who manufactured perfumes from various substances. Ancient Egyptians produced certain compounds such as those used in mummification. By 1000 B.C, chemical arts included the smelting of metals and the making of drugs, dyes, iron, and bronze. Iron making was also introduced and refinement of lead and mercury was performed. The physical properties of some metals such as copper, zinc, silver, and gold were understood. Many groups of people contributed to these developments--among them were ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hebrews, Chinese, and Indians.
                                                                                              [the above paragraph from www.albalagh.net]

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History of Biology

The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of biology as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to ayurveda, ancient Egyptian medicine and the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world. This ancient work was further developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians and scholars such as Avicenna. During the European Renaissance and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were Vesalius and Harvey, who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil record, as well as the development and behavior of organisms.

[Above paragraph for wikipedia.org]

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Branches Of Biology

Botany

In general there are two main branches of Biology

1. Botany

The scientific study of plants (about the structure,
growing and particular region).





 

Zoology

     2.  Zoology.
The scientific study of animals including human.
In the zoology exmining the internal and external
structure of animals.

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Foundations of mathematics

Foundations of mathematics is the study of the basic mathematical concepts and how they form hierarchies of more complex structures and concepts, especially the fundamentally important structures that form the language of mathematics (formulas, theories and their models giving a meaning to formulas, definitions, proofs, algorithms...) also called mathematical concepts, with an eye to the philosophical aspects and the unity of mathematics. The search for foundations of mathematics is a central question of the philosophy of mathematics; the abstract nature of mathematical objects presents special philosophical challenges.
But the foundations of mathematics as a whole does not aim to contain the foundations of every mathematical topic. Generally, the foundations of a field of study, refers to a more-or-less systematic analysis of its most basic or fundamental concepts, its conceptual unity and its natural ordering or hierarchy of concepts, which may help to connect it with the rest of human knowledge. But the development, emergence and clarification of the foundations can come late in the history of a field, and may not be viewed by everyone as its most interesting part.

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Branches of Mathematics

There are many branches of mathematics.

1. Foundations
2. Numbers
3. Algebra
4. Trignometry
5. Geometry
6. Mechanical
7. Calculus

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Disease

 Disease
A disease is a affect which change the current condition of living or nonliving organisms internal or external or both. The normal condition of body disturb by some factors.
The Main factors are Germs and Versus. There are two General types of Diseases.

1.  Psychological Diseases.
2. Biological Diseases.

In this word every thing which exist affected by diseases. Like trees, Stones, mountains, Rivers and Oceans etc. We do not care of these things much because we do not feel his pain. We care those which used by us.

(will be updating with the passage of time)

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History of Computer

 Computer Image From Past
The history of computers starts out about 2000 years ago.A number of early cultures have developed mechanical computing devices.The abacus probably existed in Babylonia about 3000 B.C. The Chinese abacus is an excellent remaining unsurpassed in speed and accuracy of operation well into this century.
The classical abacus was called "suan pan" by the Chinese- which meant “counting” or “reckoning” board.
The ancient Greeks developed some very sophisticated analog machines. In 1901, an ancient
Greek shipwreck was discovered off the island of Antikythera.
The Romans used their hands to calculate. Because of their extremely cumbersome system of
numbers, they evolved very elaborate “finger” arithmetic

Arabic numbering system that came originally from India had a big advantage over Roman
numerals because of its concept of place value. One column stands for the ones, the next
column for tens, next for hundreds, and so on.
As mathematicians expanded the boundaries of geometry, algebra and number theories, the
outcry for help became greater and greater.
The first to really achieve any success with mechanical calculating machine was Wilhelm
Schickard (1592-1635), a graduate of the University of Tübingen. In 1641 the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) built a mechanical adding machine “arithmetic”, a brass box the size of a loaf of bread, with eight dials on its face, that one operated by using stylus to input numbers.Similar work was done by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). The abacus, Pascal’s “arithmetique”, Leibniz’s Wheel- they all required an operator who did each step in sequence. Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) invented a loom that could automate textile manufacturing and weave complicated patterns described by holes in punched cards. Charles Babbage (1791-1871) worked on two mechanical devices: the Difference Engine and the far more ambitious Analytical Engine.
One of Babbage's friends, matematician Ada Augusta Byron, Countess of Lovelace (1815-1852), sometimes called the "first programmer" has written on Babbage's machine. The programming language Ada was named for her. William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882), a British economist and logician, built a machine in
1869 to solve logic problems. Herman Hollerith (1860-1929) invented the modern punched card for use in a machine he designed to help tabulate the American 1890 census.In 1928, the German mathematician David Hilbert (1862-1943) addressed the International
Congress of Mathematicians. He posed among others following three fundamental questions:
• Is mathematics complete; i.e. can every mathematical statement be either proved or
disproved?
• Is mathematics consistent, that is, is it true that statements such as "0 = 1" cannot be
proved by valid methods?
• Is mathematics decidable, that is, is there a mechanical method that can be applied to any
mathematical assertion and (at least in principle) will eventually tell whether that assertion
is true or not? This last question was called the Entscheidungsproblem.
In 1931, Kurt Gödel (1906-1978) answered two of Hilbert's questions. He showed that every
sufficiently powerful formal system is either inconsistent or incomplete..
In 1936, Alan Turing (1912-1954) provided a solution to Hilbert's Entscheidungsproblem by
conceiving a formal model of a computer - the Turing machine - and showing that there were
problems that a machine could not solve. One such problem is the so-called "halting
problem": given a program, does it halt on all inputs? At Harvard, Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973) built the Mark I electromechanical computer in 1944, with the assistance of IBM.
At Iowa State University in 1939, John Vincent Atanasoff (1904-1995) and Clifford Berry
designed and built an electronic computer for solving systems of linear equations, but it never
worked properly.
John William Mauchly (1907-1980) with J. Presper Eckert, Jr. (1919-1995), designed and
built the ENIAC, a general-purpose electronic computer originally intended for artillery
calculations.
In 1944, Mauchly, Eckert, and John von Neumann (1903-1957) were designing a stored-
program electronic computer, the EDVAC.
Maurice Wilkes (b. 1913), working in Cambridge, England, built the EDSAC, a computer
based on the EDVAC. F. C. Williams (b. 1911) and others at Manchester University built the
Manchester Mark I, one version of which was working as early as June 1948. This machine is
sometimes called the first stored-program digital computer.
Grace Murray Hopper (1906-1992) conceived of the idea of a compiler, in 1951. She even
invented the language APT.2
John Backus and others developed the first FORTRAN compiler in April 1957. LISP, a list-processing language for artificial intelligence programming, was invented by John McCarthy about 1958. Alan Perlis, John Backus, Peter Naur and others developed Algol. In hardware, Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments) and Robert Noyce invented the integrated circuit in 1959.
Edsger Dijkstra created an efficient algorithm for shortest paths in graphs as a demonstration
of the ARMAC computer in 1956.
In the 1960's, computer science came into its own as a discipline. Operating systems made major advances. Fred Brooks at IBM designed System/360. Edsger.
The 1960's also saw the rise of automata theory and the theory of formal languages. Big
names here include Noam Chomsky and Michael Rabin. Chomsky later became well-known
for his theory that language is "hard-wired" in human brains.
Proving correctness of programs using formal methods also began to be more important in
this decade. Ted Hoff and Federico Faggin at Intel designed the first microprocessor (computer on a chip)
in 1969-1971.
The first RISC architecture was begun by John Cocke in 1975, at the Thomas J. Watson
Laboratories of IBM. Similar projects started at Berkeley and Stanford around this time.
The 1970's also bring the rise of the supercomputer. Seymour Cray designed the CRAY-1,
which was first shipped in March 1976.
In 1981, the first truly successful portable computer was marketed, the Osborne I. In 1984,
Apple first marketed the Macintosh computer.

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Origin of Mathematics

Origin of MathematicsThe word math comes from Greek Word "mathema" which mean learning and instruction.

Mathematics has its origin like others technologies and subject.The origin of math is based on needs of mankind.When mankind face the problem in calculation then discover new methods for calculation.
Some evidence From Past
The  records of counting  come from physical evidence like scratches on sticks or stones or bones on the following images.

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